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Events and figures, sourced and contested
Ranked on documented consequence and scholarly consensus. Where historians genuinely disagree, the entry says so and points at the disagreement rather than picking a side.
Top of the category
Ranked by documented consequence, not by moral judgment
Multiple independent origins · beginning c. 10,000 BCE
Farming did not start in one place — the Fertile Crescent, China and Mesoamerica each independently domesticated crops within a few thousand years of each other, and historians still debate why it happened in roughly the same window rather than any single trigger. Every subsequent institution on this list, from writing to cities to universities, depends on the food surplus this made possible.
Johannes Gutenberg · Mainz, c. 1440
Gutenberg adapted a wine-press mechanism and interchangeable metal type to print a Bible in a fraction of the time a scribe would need, and within fifty years presses had produced more books than European monks had copied by hand in the previous thousand years. Literacy, and with it the Reformation and the Scientific Revolution, followed directly from the collapse in the cost of a book.
Global conflict · 1939–1945
The deadliest conflict in recorded history killed an estimated 70 to 85 million people, roughly 3% of the 1940 world population, and redrew the political map from the founding of the United Nations to the start of decolonisation. Its industrial scale of killing, including the Holocaust, forced the creation of an entirely new body of international law around genocide and crimes against humanity.
2 lists
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Knowledge
Science, history, learning and the places that hold them.
Top 49 rankings are editorial. Scores are produced from the published criteria on each list and are refreshed on the cadence stated there. Figures shown across this section are curated demonstration data.